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By Richard B. Buxton
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Additional resources for Introduction to Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Principles and Techniques,Second Edition
Example text
The major amplification comes when a neurotransmitter binds to a post-synaptic receptor and opens a Na+ channel, which may let a thousand ions pass through before it closes again. In this way, the weak signal associated with one neurotransmitter molecule binding to a receptor is amplified a thousand-fold. But all that Na+ must be pumped back in the recovery stage. Very roughly, moving any molecule against its gradient requires about one ATP, so it is perhaps not so surprising that the primary signal amplification stage is the dominant energy cost in neural signaling.
The free energy to drive this uphill pumping is provided by the NADH/NAD+ system, by the transfer of electrons from NADH to the complexes, leaving NAD+. These complexes are arranged in a chain, and the electrons are passed along the chain. At each step in the complex this electron transfer is a thermodynamically downhill process that is coupled to the uphill process of pumping H+ across the membrane against its gradient. At the end of the electron transfer chain, the electron reaches an enzyme called cytochrome oxidase, and the final step in this process is the transfer of four electrons from cytochrome oxidase to an O2 molecule to form two molecules of water.
Such time–activity curves can be analyzed with a kinetic model to extract estimates of individual rate constants for uptake of glucose from the blood and for the first stage of glycolysis. However, the power of the technique is that the distribution of the tracer at a late time point directly reflects the local glucose metabolic rate. In order to derive a quantitative measure of glucose metabolism with either the DG or FDG technique, two other quantities are required. The first is a record of the concentration of the tracer in arterial blood from injection up to the time of the PET image (or the time of sacrifice of the animal in an autoradiographic study).